England’s economic foundations were built on medieval trade, particularly the export of wool, which became the backbone of its foreign commerce. The Cinque Ports—originally Hastings, New Romney, Hythe, Dover, and Sandwich—were established in the 11th and 12th centuries to facilitate trade and provide naval service to the Crown. In exchange for ships and men, these ports enjoyed privileges such as tax exemptions and self-governance. They handled the shipment of wool to Flanders and northern France, while overland routes through the Low Countries and France supported trade in cloth and other goods. England also utilized North Sea and Baltic routes for timber, fish, and furs, essential for shipbuilding and naval expansion. Later, Atlantic routes enabled commerce with North America, the Caribbean, and Africa, including sugar, tobacco, and enslaved people. By the late 16th century, England increasingly looked toward Asia: the East India Company, formally chartered in 1600 under Queen Elizabeth I, secured exclusive rights to trade east of the Cape of Good Hope, establishing links with India, Southeast Asia, and China for spices, textiles, tea, and porcelain. Key trade hubs included London, Southampton, Bristol, and Boston, linking England to continental Europe, the Mediterranean, and the wider world.

During the reign of Henry VII (1485–1509), England began to professionalize its navy. Portsmouth became the first dry dock and permanent naval base in 1495, while Deptford and Woolwich were prepared as staging points for ship storage, provisioning, and construction planning. Henry VII also commissioned purpose-built warships, including the Regent (launched 1488), signaling a shift from refitted merchant vessels to dedicated naval ships. These reforms laid the foundation for a centralized, Crown-controlled navy, which later enabled England to project maritime power under Henry VIII (1509–1547) and Elizabeth I (1558–1603).

The Tudor period marked a shift toward overseas trade and exploration. England’s early chartered companies pioneered this expansion: the Muscovy Company (1555) traded with Russia in furs, timber, and naval supplies; the Levant Company (1578) opened commerce with the Ottoman Empire in silk, spices, carpets, and luxury goods; and the East India Company (chartered 1600) secured exclusive rights east of the Cape of Good Hope, granting access to Asian spice markets and later tea, porcelain, and textiles. Explorers such as Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh established early claims and trading posts, while ventures like the Roanoke Colony (1585–1590) paved the way for permanent settlements in North America.

By the 17th century, England combined trade with settlement. Colonies such as Jamestown (1607) and the Caribbean colonies of Barbados (1627), Jamaica (1655), and Antigua (1632) provided permanent bases for English commerce. Tobacco from Virginia, sugar from the Caribbean, cotton from India and the Americas, and tea and porcelain from China fueled growing global trade. London dominated Asian trade, while Bristol and Liverpool became major hubs for the Atlantic slave trade and triangular trade routes, including the transport of enslaved Africans from West Africa to the Americas (from around 1619 onward). Portsmouth remained primarily a military port, but adjacent towns benefited from trade-linked growth. England’s expansion strategy emphasized commerce and establishing footholds rather than outright conquest, with military action used selectively to protect trade interests.

The 18th and early 19th centuries saw trade, colonization, and industrial production converge. Manufactured goods were exported to Africa, enslaved Africans were transported to the Americas, and commodities such as sugar, tobacco, and cotton were shipped back to England. By the mid‑18th century, Liverpool had become the leading slave port, overtaking Bristol, while London retained prominence in tea, silk, spices, and East India trade. Manchester, connected via Liverpool, emerged as the center of cotton processing during the Industrial Revolution. English engagement in India expanded under Robert Clive, known as “Clive of India,” whose decisive victory at the Battle of Plassey (1757) opened the gateway to British dominance in India and allowed the East India Company to extend its influence through military power and political strategy.

From 1815 to 1914, the Royal Navy underwent a technological revolution, building on earlier English innovations in metallurgy and ship construction. Wooden sailing ships gave way to steam-powered vessels constructed from iron and steel, enabled by key English innovations developed from the mid-eighteenth century onward: Benjamin Huntsman’s crucible steel (1740s) was used for cannon barrels, propeller shafts, and armor plates; Henry Cort’s wrought iron (patented 1784) strengthened hulls, deck beams, anchors, and fittings; Henry Bessemer’s mass-produced steel (patented 1856) allowed entire ship hulls and structural components to be built; and Samson Fox’s corrugated boiler flue (patented 1877) enhanced steamship efficiency and safety. These advances allowed the Royal Navy to dominate the seas, protect trade routes, and integrate military and commercial power, securing Britain’s global maritime dominance.

The First Governor and the Gateway to India

Robert Clive, known as “Clive of India,” was an English Lieutenant-Colonel in the East India Company’s army and the first British Governor of Bengal. He was pivotal in establishing British control over India in the mid-18th century, which became the jewel in the crown of England’s colonial expansion, providing immense wealth, strategic advantage, and the foundation for British imperial dominance in Asia. His decisive victory at the Battle of Plassey (23 June 1757) became the gateway to British dominance in India, enabling the Company to expand its influence through military power and political strategy. Clive secured large territories, reorganized administration and revenue systems, and laid the foundations of British colonial rule. Returning to Britain, he served in Parliament and, despite criticism over his wealth and conduct, remained influential in shaping British imperial policy.

At Plassey, the battle force was a mix of Company and English units. The only regular British Army regiment present was the English 39th Regiment of Foot, numbering roughly 100–600 soldiers, which served as the lead regiment under Clive. Alongside them were about 2,100 East India Company sepoys, ~100 Company artillerymen, and European gunners and officers within the Company’s forces. The 39th, now known as the Dorsetshire Regiment, was awarded the motto “Primus in Indis” – First In India for its pivotal role in the victory. The Keep Military Museum records its history:

“The Dorsetshire Regiment was initially raised as the 39th and 54th Regiments of Foot. Raised in 1702 and 1755 respectively, the regiments served in Ireland, Gibraltar, America and India, where they gained the motto ‘Primus in Indis’ – First In India – as the first King’s Regiment there. They fought against Napoleon in the Peninsular War and Egypt. In the 19th century they were again in India, Australia and saw service in Burma and the Crimea.”

The 39th fought at Plassey long before receiving any county affiliation; in 1782 it was assigned to East Middlesex for recruiting purposes and eventually became part of the Dorsetshire Regiment in 1881. Throughout its history, the 39th also participated in the 1727 and 1779–1783 sieges of Gibraltar, which led to the castle and key of Gibraltar being added to its badge.

Plassey’s significance lies not only in the military victory but in how it established British supremacy in Bengal and provided the East India Company with the political and financial base to expand across India, marking the beginning of formal British colonial rule in the subcontinent.

Governance in the colonies and India was overseen by senior officials who were almost exclusively British nationals. Initially, India was administered by the Governor‑Generals of Bengal, the East India Company’s senior officials in charge of Bengal and surrounding territories. As British control expanded, the office evolved into the Governor‑General of India, overseeing the entire subcontinent. After 1858, when the British Crown assumed direct control from the East India Company, the Viceroy of India became the highest official, acting as the direct representative of the Crown with supreme executive, military, and diplomatic authority until independence in 1947. Appointments were typically for three to five years, though tenure could be shorter or longer depending on health, political shifts in Britain, colonial crises, or promotions. Rotation also helped keep officials effective, preventing them from becoming too entrenched or complacent in a single colony. Temporary or acting governors could serve for just a few months while a permanent replacement was appointed.

Pre‑Viceroy Governors‑General (1757–1858)

Robert Clive (Governor of Bengal) – Styche Hall, Shropshire, England
Warren Hastings – Churchill, Oxfordshire, England
Sir John Macpherson, 1st Baronet (acting) – Isle of Skye, Scotland
Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis – London, England
Sir John Shore, 1st Baron Teignmouth – St James’s, London, England
Richard Colley Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley – Dangan Castle, County Meath, Ireland
Sir George Hilaro Barlow, 1st Baronet (acting) – England
Gilbert Elliot-Murray-Kynynmound, 1st Earl of Minto – Edinburgh, Scotland
Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings – Moira, County Down, Ireland
John Adam (acting) – England
Earl Amherst – Bath, Somerset, England
William Butterworth Bayley (acting) – Hope Hall, Eccles, Lancashire, England
Lord William Bentinck – Buckinghamshire, England
Sir Charles Metcalfe, 1st Baron Metcalfe (acting) – Calcutta, Bengal Presidency, British India
Earl Auckland – Beckenham, Kent, England
Lord Ellenborough – London, England
Sir Henry Hardinge, 1st Viscount Hardinge – Wrotham, Kent, England
The Marquess of Dalhousie – Dalhousie Castle, Scotland
Charles John Canning, 1st Earl Canning – Brompton, London, England

Viceroys of India (1858–1947)

Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning
(Initially appointed as the last Governor-General of the East India Company in 1856. Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British Crown took direct control of India under the Government of India Act 1858. He was appointed by Queen Victoria as the first Viceroy of India in 1858, effectively holding both titles in succession during the transfer of power.)
– Brompton, London, England
James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin – London, England
Sir John Lawrence, 1st Baronet – Richmond, North Riding of Yorkshire, England
Richard Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo – Dublin, Ireland
Thomas Baring, 1st Earl of Northbrook – birthplace uncertain / likely England
Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton – London, England
George Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon – London, England
Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon – Eastbourne, East Sussex, England
Victor Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow – Hopetoun House, South Queensferry, Scotland
Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell – Colchester, Essex, England
Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma – Frogmore House, Windsor, England