Why Universities Spread Slowly in England

For centuries, England’s higher-education system consisted of only two universities — Oxford and Cambridge. Their dominance was reinforced by law, religion, and social hierarchy, preventing the emergence of new institutions until the modern era. The following sections explain how this unusual monopoly developed and why it lasted so long, before exploring the evolution into today’s diverse system.

1. Medieval Foundations and Religious Barriers

Oxford and Cambridge, founded in the late 12th and early 13th centuries, quickly became England’s primary centres of learning. Their collegiate structure — collections of largely autonomous colleges, each almost like a small university on its own — gave them remarkable stability, wealth, and institutional power, leaving little room or perceived need for new universities.

At Oxford, University College (1249), Balliol College (1263), and Merton College (1264) were among the earliest foundations, eventually expanding to around 15 colleges by the Reformation. Cambridge followed a similar path, with Peterhouse (1284), Clare (1326), Pembroke (1347), King’s (1441), Queens’ (1448), and St John’s (1511).

Early Monopolies and Religious Controls

A major factor in maintaining this monopoly was the Stamford Oath, imposed under Edward III after scholars attempted to set up a rival university in Stamford. Scholars at Oxford and Cambridge were required to swear not to establish a university elsewhere, effectively blocking new foundations for centuries. Similarly, the University of Northampton (founded 1261) was shut down by Henry III, who then banned any future universities there — reinforcing the duopoly.

Beyond these specific measures, religion and law played a central role in controlling access to higher education. Throughout the early modern period, English universities were closely tied to the Church of England. Laws such as the Act of Uniformity and the Test Act of 1673 required students and faculty to swear allegiance to Anglican doctrine. This excluded Catholics, Dissenters, Jews, and other minorities from earning degrees or teaching, confining higher education within the Anglican establishment.

Taking these together, we see a continuum of monopoly enforcement: medieval oaths and royal decrees preserved Oxbridge’s dominance, while early-modern legal and religious restrictions formalised barriers across all universities. For centuries, these mechanisms kept higher education limited and exclusive.

2. Social Hierarchy and Limited Demand

England’s rigid social order also limited the growth of universities. Higher education primarily aimed to train clergy, administrators, lawyers, and a small elite. With such narrow objectives, the country’s educational needs were easily met by Oxford and Cambridge alone.

The curriculum — focused on theology, classical languages, and scholastic philosophy — targeted only a tiny segment of society. As a result, there was little societal pressure to create new universities.

3. Geography, Infrastructure, and Lack of State Support

Unlike many continental countries, England had no strong tradition of state-founded universities. Creating a university required substantial resources — libraries, scholars, buildings, and endowments — which few towns could provide without royal backing.

Medieval England’s geographic size and limited transport networks further concentrated intellectual life in Oxford and Cambridge. Without broader societal or royal support, the Oxbridge monopoly remained largely unchallenged.

4. Industrialisation and the 19th-Century Opening

The Industrial Revolution created new demands for scientific, technical, and professional education that Oxford and Cambridge could not meet alone. The growing middle class and Nonconformist communities called for institutions outside Anglican control.

New universities emerged, including University College London (1826), King’s College London (1829), and Durham University (1832). The Universities Tests Act of 1871, which abolished religious tests, further accelerated this expansion.

5. 20th-Century Expansion

The most dramatic growth came after World War II. The Robbins Report (1963) established the principle that university places should be available to all qualified students, not just a privileged few.

This led to the creation of new universities and the expansion of existing ones. In 1992, polytechnics were converted into universities — completing the transformation from a tiny elite system to a mass higher-education landscape.

6. Modern English Universities and Global Impact

While Oxford and Cambridge retain historic prestige, the modern UK higher-education system is diverse, globally connected, and research-intensive.

Oxford University: Political and Academic Influence

The University of Oxford remains a global leader. In 2025, it was ranked world number one in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings, marking a record-breaking ninth consecutive year at the top. Oxford retained its leading position in the 2026 rankings, achieving a record tenth consecutive year as the world’s best university. Although these 2026 rankings were released in late 2025, they are labeled “2026” to reflect the upcoming academic or calendar year.

Oxford has educated 31 UK Prime Ministers, as well as countless leaders in law, civil service, and public life. Academically, its affiliates include numerous of Nobel laureates, multiple Fields Medalists, and Turing Award winners. Its sustained excellence in teaching, research, and global outlook underpins its enduring prestige and influence.

Nottingham University: Expanding the Global Reach

The University of Nottingham exemplifies the growing international scope of British higher education. It was the first UK university to open a campus in Malaysia (2000) and the first foreign university to establish a campus in China (2004). Its research is highly rated, with 32% classified as world-leading and 49% as internationally excellent, spanning medicine, science, and social research. Nobel laureate Sir Peter Mansfield’s work on MRI underscores Nottingham’s global impact.

A Modern, Diversified Landscape

While Oxford and Cambridge retain historic prestige, modern British higher education is more diverse and globally connected than ever. Universities such as Nottingham, Imperial College London, University College London (UCL), London School of Economics (LSE), and Manchester demonstrate that research excellence, global reach, and innovation are no longer confined to Oxbridge. Today’s UK university system combines centuries of tradition with cutting-edge research and international impact.